Technical Notes about PCRE2 --------------------------- These are very rough technical notes that record potentially useful information about PCRE2 internals. PCRE2 is a library based on the original PCRE library, but with a revised (and incompatible) API. To avoid confusion, the original library is referred to as PCRE1 below. For information about testing PCRE2, see the pcre2test documentation and the comment at the head of the RunTest file. PCRE1 releases were up to 8.3x when PCRE2 was developed, and later bug fix releases remain in the 8.xx series. PCRE2 releases started at 10.00 to avoid confusion with PCRE1. Historical note 1 ----------------- Many years ago I implemented some regular expression functions to an algorithm suggested by Martin Richards. The rather simple patterns were not Unix-like in form, and were quite restricted in what they could do by comparison with Perl. The interesting part about the algorithm was that the amount of space required to hold the compiled form of an expression was known in advance. The code to apply an expression did not operate by backtracking, as the original Henry Spencer code and current PCRE2 and Perl code does, but instead checked all possibilities simultaneously by keeping a list of current states and checking all of them as it advanced through the subject string. In the terminology of Jeffrey Friedl's book, it was a "DFA algorithm", though it was not a traditional Finite State Machine (FSM). When the pattern was all used up, all remaining states were possible matches, and the one matching the longest subset of the subject string was chosen. This did not necessarily maximize the individual wild portions of the pattern, as is expected in Unix and Perl-style regular expressions. Historical note 2 ----------------- By contrast, the code originally written by Henry Spencer (which was subsequently heavily modified for Perl) compiles the expression twice: once in a dummy mode in order to find out how much store will be needed, and then for real. (The Perl version probably doesn't do this any more; I'm talking about the original library.) The execution function operates by backtracking and maximizing (or, optionally, minimizing, in Perl) the amount of the subject that matches individual wild portions of the pattern. This is an "NFA algorithm" in Friedl's terminology. OK, here's the real stuff ------------------------- For the set of functions that formed the original PCRE1 library in 1997 (which are unrelated to those mentioned above), I tried at first to invent an algorithm that used an amount of store bounded by a multiple of the number of characters in the pattern, to save on compiling time. However, because of the greater complexity in Perl regular expressions, I couldn't do this, even though the then current Perl 5.004 patterns were much simpler than those supported nowadays. In any case, a first pass through the pattern is helpful for other reasons. Support for 16-bit and 32-bit data strings ------------------------------------------- The PCRE2 library can be compiled in any combination of 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit modes, creating up to three different libraries. In the description that follows, the word "short" is used for a 16-bit data quantity, and the phrase "code unit" is used for a quantity that is a byte in 8-bit mode, a short in 16-bit mode and a 32-bit word in 32-bit mode. The names of PCRE2 functions are given in generic form, without the _8, _16, or _32 suffix. Computing the memory requirement: how it was -------------------------------------------- Up to and including release 6.7, PCRE1 worked by running a very degenerate first pass to calculate a maximum memory requirement, and then a second pass to do the real compile - which might use a bit less than the predicted amount of memory. The idea was that this would turn out faster than the Henry Spencer code because the first pass is degenerate and the second pass can just store stuff straight into memory, which it knows is big enough. Computing the memory requirement: how it is ------------------------------------------- By the time I was working on a potential 6.8 release, the degenerate first pass had become very complicated and hard to maintain. Indeed one of the early things I did for 6.8 was to fix Yet Another Bug in the memory computation. Then I had a flash of inspiration as to how I could run the real compile function in a "fake" mode that enables it to compute how much memory it would need, while in most cases only ever using a small amount of working memory, and without too many tests of the mode that might slow it down. So I refactored the compiling functions to work this way. This got rid of about 600 lines of source and made further maintenance and development easier. As this was such a major change, I never released 6.8, instead upping the number to 7.0 (other quite major changes were also present in the 7.0 release). A side effect of this work was that the previous limit of 200 on the nesting depth of parentheses was removed. However, there was a downside: compiling ran more slowly than before (30% or more, depending on the pattern) because it now did a full analysis of the pattern. My hope was that this would not be a big issue, and in the event, nobody has commented on it. At release 8.34, a limit on the nesting depth of parentheses was re-introduced (default 250, settable at build time) so as to put a limit on the amount of system stack used by the compile function, which uses recursive function calls for nested parenthesized groups. This is a safety feature for environments with small stacks where the patterns are provided by users. Yet another pattern scan ------------------------ History repeated itself for PCRE2 release 10.20. A number of bugs relating to named subpatterns had been discovered by fuzzers. Most of these were related to the handling of forward references when it was not known if the named group was unique. (References to non-unique names use a different opcode and more memory.) The use of duplicate group numbers (the (?| facility) also caused issues. To get around these problems I adopted a new approach by adding a third pass over the pattern (really a "pre-pass"), which did nothing other than identify all the named subpatterns and their corresponding group numbers. This means that the actual compile (both the memory-computing dummy run and the real compile) has full knowledge of group names and numbers throughout. Several dozen lines of messy code were eliminated, though the new pre-pass was not short. In particular, parsing and skipping over [] classes is complicated. While working on 10.22 I realized that I could simplify yet again by moving more of the parsing into the pre-pass, thus avoiding doing it in two places, so after 10.22 was released, the code underwent yet another big refactoring. This is how it is from 10.23 onwards: The function called parse_regex() scans the pattern characters, parsing them into literal data and meta characters. It converts escapes such as \x{123} into literals, handles \Q...\E, and skips over comments and non-significant white space. The result of the scanning is put into a vector of 32-bit unsigned integers. Values less than 0x80000000 are literal data. Higher values represent meta-characters. The top 16-bits of such values identify the meta-character, and these are given names such as META_CAPTURE. The lower 16-bits are available for data, for example, the capturing group number. The only situation in which literal data values greater than 0x7fffffff can appear is when the 32-bit library is running in non-UTF mode. This is handled by having a special meta-character that is followed by the 32-bit data value. The size of the parsed pattern vector, when auto-callouts are not enabled, is bounded by the length of the pattern (with one exception). The code is written so that each item in the pattern uses no more vector elements than the number of code units in the item itself. The exception is the aforementioned large 32-bit number handling. For this reason, 32-bit non-UTF patterns are scanned in advance to check for such values. When auto-callouts are enabled, the generous assumption is made that there will be a callout for each pattern code unit (which of course is only actually true if all code units are literals) plus one at the end. There is a default parsed pattern vector on the system stack, but if this is not big enough, heap memory is used. As before, the actual compiling function is run twice, the first time to determine the amount of memory needed for the final compiled pattern. It now processes the parsed pattern vector, not the pattern itself, although some of the parsed items refer to strings in the pattern - for example, group names. As escapes and comments have already been processed, the code is a bit simpler than before. Most errors can be diagnosed during the parsing scan. For those that cannot (for example, "lookbehind assertion is not fixed length"), the parsed code contains offsets into the pattern so that the actual compiling code can report where errors are. The elements of the parsed pattern vector ----------------------------------------- The word "offset" below means a code unit offset into the pattern. When PCRE2_SIZE (which is usually size_t) is no bigger than uint32_t, an offset is stored in a single parsed pattern element. Otherwise (typically on 64-bit systems) it occupies two elements. The following meta items occupy just one element, with no data: META_ACCEPT (*ACCEPT) META_ASTERISK * META_ASTERISK_PLUS *+ META_ASTERISK_QUERY *? META_ATOMIC (?> start of atomic group META_CIRCUMFLEX ^ metacharacter META_CLASS [ start of non-empty class META_CLASS_EMPTY [] empty class - only with PCRE2_ALLOW_EMPTY_CLASS META_CLASS_EMPTY_NOT [^] negative empty class - ditto META_CLASS_END ] end of non-empty class META_CLASS_NOT [^ start non-empty negative class META_COMMIT (*COMMIT) META_COND_ASSERT (?(?assertion) META_DOLLAR $ metacharacter META_DOT . metacharacter META_END End of pattern (this value is 0x80000000) META_FAIL (*FAIL) META_KET ) closing parenthesis META_LOOKAHEAD (?= start of lookahead META_LOOKAHEAD_NA (*napla: start of non-atomic lookahead META_LOOKAHEADNOT (?! start of negative lookahead META_NOCAPTURE (?: no capture parens META_PLUS + META_PLUS_PLUS ++ META_PLUS_QUERY +? META_PRUNE (*PRUNE) - no argument META_QUERY ? META_QUERY_PLUS ?+ META_QUERY_QUERY ?? META_RANGE_ESCAPED hyphen in class range with at least one escape META_RANGE_LITERAL hyphen in class range defined literally META_SKIP (*SKIP) - no argument META_THEN (*THEN) - no argument The two RANGE values occur only in character classes. They are positioned between two literals that define the start and end of the range. In an EBCDIC evironment it is necessary to know whether either of the range values was specified as an escape. In an ASCII/Unicode environment the distinction is not relevant. The following have data in the lower 16 bits, and may be followed by other data elements: META_ALT | alternation META_BACKREF back reference META_CAPTURE start of capturing group META_ESCAPE non-literal escape sequence META_RECURSE recursion call If the data for META_ALT is non-zero, it is inside a lookbehind, and the data is the length of its branch, for which OP_REVERSE must be generated. META_BACKREF, META_CAPTURE, and META_RECURSE have the capture group number as their data in the lower 16 bits of the element. META_BACKREF is followed by an offset if the back reference group number is 10 or more. The offsets of the first ocurrences of references to groups whose numbers are less than 10 are put in cb->small_ref_offset[] (only the first occurrence is useful). On 64-bit systems this avoids using more than two parsed pattern elements for items such as \3. The offset is used when an error occurs because the reference is to a non-existent group. META_RECURSE is always followed by an offset, for use in error messages. META_ESCAPE has an ESC_xxx value as its data. For ESC_P and ESC_p, the next element contains the 16-bit type and data property values, packed together. ESC_g and ESC_k are used only for named references - numerical ones are turned into META_RECURSE or META_BACKREF as appropriate. ESC_g and ESC_k are followed by a length and an offset into the pattern to specify the name. The following have one data item that follows in the next vector element: META_BIGVALUE Next is a literal >= META_END META_OPTIONS (?i) and friends (data is new option bits) META_POSIX POSIX class item (data identifies the class) META_POSIX_NEG negative POSIX class item (ditto) The following are followed by a length element, then a number of character code values (which should match with the length): META_MARK (*MARK:xxxx) META_COMMIT_ARG )*COMMIT:xxxx) META_PRUNE_ARG (*PRUNE:xxx) META_SKIP_ARG (*SKIP:xxxx) META_THEN_ARG (*THEN:xxxx) The following are followed by a length element, then an offset in the pattern that identifies the name: META_COND_NAME (?(<name>) or (?('name') or (?(name) META_COND_RNAME (?(R&name) META_COND_RNUMBER (?(Rdigits) META_RECURSE_BYNAME (?&name) META_BACKREF_BYNAME \k'name' META_COND_RNUMBER is used for names that start with R and continue with digits, because this is an ambiguous case. It could be a back reference to a group with that name, or it could be a recursion test on a numbered group. This one is followed by an offset, for use in error messages, then a number: META_COND_NUMBER (?([+-]digits) The following is followed just by an offset, for use in error messages: META_COND_DEFINE (?(DEFINE) The following are also followed just by an offset, but also the lower 16 bits of the main word contain the length of the first branch of the lookbehind group; this is used when generating OP_REVERSE for that branch. META_LOOKBEHIND (?<= start of lookbehind META_LOOKBEHIND_NA (*naplb: start of non-atomic lookbehind META_LOOKBEHINDNOT (?<! start of negative lookbehind The following are followed by two elements, the minimum and maximum. Repeat values are limited to 65535 (MAX_REPEAT). A maximum value of "unlimited" is represented by UNLIMITED_REPEAT, which is bigger than MAX_REPEAT: META_MINMAX {n,m} repeat META_MINMAX_PLUS {n,m}+ repeat META_MINMAX_QUERY {n,m}? repeat This one is followed by three elements. The first is 0 for '>' and 1 for '>='; the next two are the major and minor numbers: META_COND_VERSION (?(VERSION<op>x.y) Callouts are converted into one of two items: META_CALLOUT_NUMBER (?C with numerical argument META_CALLOUT_STRING (?C with string argument In both cases, the next two elements contain the offset and length of the next item in the pattern. Then there is either one callout number, or a length and an offset for the string argument. The length includes both delimiters. Traditional matching function ----------------------------- The "traditional", and original, matching function is called pcre2_match(), and it implements an NFA algorithm, similar to the original Henry Spencer algorithm and the way that Perl works. This is not surprising, since it is intended to be as compatible with Perl as possible. This is the function most users of PCRE2 will use most of the time. If PCRE2 is compiled with just-in-time (JIT) support, and studying a compiled pattern with JIT is successful, the JIT code is run instead of the normal pcre2_match() code, but the result is the same. Supplementary matching function ------------------------------- There is also a supplementary matching function called pcre2_dfa_match(). This implements a DFA matching algorithm that searches simultaneously for all possible matches that start at one point in the subject string. (Going back to my roots: see Historical Note 1 above.) This function intreprets the same compiled pattern data as pcre2_match(); however, not all the facilities are available, and those that are do not always work in quite the same way. See the user documentation for details. The algorithm that is used for pcre2_dfa_match() is not a traditional FSM, because it may have a number of states active at one time. More work would be needed at compile time to produce a traditional FSM where only one state is ever active at once. I believe some other regex matchers work this way. JIT support is not available for this kind of matching. Changeable options ------------------ The /i, /m, or /s options (PCRE2_CASELESS, PCRE2_MULTILINE, PCRE2_DOTALL, and others) may be changed in the middle of patterns by items such as (?i). Their processing is handled entirely at compile time by generating different opcodes for the different settings. The runtime functions do not need to keep track of an option's state. PCRE2_DUPNAMES, PCRE2_EXTENDED, PCRE2_EXTENDED_MORE, and PCRE2_NO_AUTO_CAPTURE are tracked and processed during the parsing pre-pass. The others are handled from META_OPTIONS items during the main compile phase. Format of compiled patterns --------------------------- The compiled form of a pattern is a vector of unsigned code units (bytes in 8-bit mode, shorts in 16-bit mode, 32-bit words in 32-bit mode), containing items of variable length. The first code unit in an item contains an opcode, and the length of the item is either implicit in the opcode or contained in the data that follows it. In many cases listed below, LINK_SIZE data values are specified for offsets within the compiled pattern. LINK_SIZE always specifies a number of bytes. The default value for LINK_SIZE is 2, except for the 32-bit library, where it can only be 4. The 8-bit library can be compiled to used 3-byte or 4-byte values, and the 16-bit library can be compiled to use 4-byte values, though this impairs performance. Specifing a LINK_SIZE larger than 2 for these libraries is necessary only when patterns whose compiled length is greater than 65535 code units are going to be processed. When a LINK_SIZE value uses more than one code unit, the most significant unit is first. In this description, we assume the "normal" compilation options. Data values that are counts (e.g. quantifiers) are always two bytes long in 8-bit mode (most significant byte first), and one code unit in 16-bit and 32-bit modes. Opcodes with no following data ------------------------------ These items are all just one unit long: OP_END end of pattern OP_ANY match any one character other than newline OP_ALLANY match any one character, including newline OP_ANYBYTE match any single code unit, even in UTF-8/16 mode OP_SOD match start of data: \A OP_SOM, start of match (subject + offset): \G OP_SET_SOM, set start of match (\K) OP_CIRC ^ (start of data) OP_CIRCM ^ multiline mode (start of data or after newline) OP_NOT_WORD_BOUNDARY \W OP_WORD_BOUNDARY \w OP_NOT_DIGIT \D OP_DIGIT \d OP_NOT_HSPACE \H OP_HSPACE \h OP_NOT_WHITESPACE \S OP_WHITESPACE \s OP_NOT_VSPACE \V OP_VSPACE \v OP_NOT_WORDCHAR \W OP_WORDCHAR \w OP_EODN match end of data or newline at end: \Z OP_EOD match end of data: \z OP_DOLL $ (end of data, or before final newline) OP_DOLLM $ multiline mode (end of data or before newline) OP_EXTUNI match an extended Unicode grapheme cluster OP_ANYNL match any Unicode newline sequence OP_ASSERT_ACCEPT ) OP_ACCEPT ) These are Perl 5.10's "backtracking control OP_COMMIT ) verbs". If OP_ACCEPT is inside capturing OP_FAIL ) parentheses, it may be preceded by one or more OP_PRUNE ) OP_CLOSE, each followed by a number that OP_SKIP ) indicates which parentheses must be closed. OP_THEN ) OP_ASSERT_ACCEPT is used when (*ACCEPT) is encountered within an assertion. This ends the assertion, not the entire pattern match. The assertion (?!) is always optimized to OP_FAIL. OP_ALLANY is used for '.' when PCRE2_DOTALL is set. It is also used for \C in non-UTF modes and in UTF-32 mode (since one code unit still equals one character). Another use is for [^] when empty classes are permitted (PCRE2_ALLOW_EMPTY_CLASS is set). Backtracking control verbs -------------------------- Verbs with no arguments generate opcodes with no following data (as listed in the section above). (*MARK:NAME) generates OP_MARK followed by the mark name, preceded by a length in one code unit, and followed by a binary zero. The name length is limited by the size of the code unit. (*ACCEPT:NAME) and (*FAIL:NAME) are compiled as (*MARK:NAME)(*ACCEPT) and (*MARK:NAME)(*FAIL) respectively. For (*COMMIT:NAME), (*PRUNE:NAME), (*SKIP:NAME), and (*THEN:NAME), the opcodes OP_COMMIT_ARG, OP_PRUNE_ARG, OP_SKIP_ARG, and OP_THEN_ARG are used, with the name following in the same format as for OP_MARK. Matching literal characters --------------------------- The OP_CHAR opcode is followed by a single character that is to be matched casefully. For caseless matching of characters that have at most two case-equivalent code points, OP_CHARI is used. In UTF-8 or UTF-16 modes, the character may be more than one code unit long. In UTF-32 mode, characters are always exactly one code unit long. If there is only one character in a character class, OP_CHAR or OP_CHARI is used for a positive class, and OP_NOT or OP_NOTI for a negative one (that is, for something like [^a]). Caseless matching (positive or negative) of characters that have more than two case-equivalent code points (which is possible only in UTF mode) is handled by compiling a Unicode property item (see below), with the pseudo-property PT_CLIST. The value of this property is an offset in a vector called "ucd_caseless_sets" which identifies the start of a short list of equivalent characters, terminated by the value NOTACHAR (0xffffffff). Repeating single characters --------------------------- The common repeats (*, +, ?), when applied to a single character, use the following opcodes, which come in caseful and caseless versions: Caseful Caseless OP_STAR OP_STARI OP_MINSTAR OP_MINSTARI OP_POSSTAR OP_POSSTARI OP_PLUS OP_PLUSI OP_MINPLUS OP_MINPLUSI OP_POSPLUS OP_POSPLUSI OP_QUERY OP_QUERYI OP_MINQUERY OP_MINQUERYI OP_POSQUERY OP_POSQUERYI Each opcode is followed by the character that is to be repeated. In ASCII or UTF-32 modes, these are two-code-unit items; in UTF-8 or UTF-16 modes, the length is variable. Those with "MIN" in their names are the minimizing versions. Those with "POS" in their names are possessive versions. Other kinds of repeat make use of these opcodes: Caseful Caseless OP_UPTO OP_UPTOI OP_MINUPTO OP_MINUPTOI OP_POSUPTO OP_POSUPTOI OP_EXACT OP_EXACTI Each of these is followed by a count and then the repeated character. The count is two bytes long in 8-bit mode (most significant byte first), or one code unit in 16-bit and 32-bit modes. OP_UPTO matches from 0 to the given number. A repeat with a non-zero minimum and a fixed maximum is coded as an OP_EXACT followed by an OP_UPTO (or OP_MINUPTO or OPT_POSUPTO). Another set of matching repeating opcodes (called OP_NOTSTAR, OP_NOTSTARI, etc.) are used for repeated, negated, single-character classes such as [^a]*. The normal single-character opcodes (OP_STAR, etc.) are used for repeated positive single-character classes. Repeating character types ------------------------- Repeats of things like \d are done exactly as for single characters, except that instead of a character, the opcode for the type (e.g. OP_DIGIT) is stored in the next code unit. The opcodes are: OP_TYPESTAR OP_TYPEMINSTAR OP_TYPEPOSSTAR OP_TYPEPLUS OP_TYPEMINPLUS OP_TYPEPOSPLUS OP_TYPEQUERY OP_TYPEMINQUERY OP_TYPEPOSQUERY OP_TYPEUPTO OP_TYPEMINUPTO OP_TYPEPOSUPTO OP_TYPEEXACT Match by Unicode property ------------------------- OP_PROP and OP_NOTPROP are used for positive and negative matches of a character by testing its Unicode property (the \p and \P escape sequences). Each is followed by two code units that encode the desired property as a type and a value. The types are a set of #defines of the form PT_xxx, and the values are enumerations of the form ucp_xx, defined in the pcre2_ucp.h source file. The value is relevant only for PT_GC (General Category), PT_PC (Particular Category), PT_SC (Script), PT_BIDICL (Bidi Class), and the pseudo-property PT_CLIST, which is used to identify a list of case-equivalent characters when there are three or more. Repeats of these items use the OP_TYPESTAR etc. set of opcodes, followed by three code units: OP_PROP or OP_NOTPROP, and then the desired property type and value. Character classes ----------------- If there is only one character in a class, OP_CHAR or OP_CHARI is used for a positive class, and OP_NOT or OP_NOTI for a negative one (that is, for something like [^a]), except when caselessly matching a character that has more than two case-equivalent code points (which can happen only in UTF mode). In this case a Unicode property item is used, as described above in "Matching literal characters". A set of repeating opcodes (called OP_NOTSTAR etc.) are used for repeated, negated, single-character classes. The normal single-character opcodes (OP_STAR, etc.) are used for repeated positive single-character classes. When there is more than one character in a class, and all the code points are less than 256, OP_CLASS is used for a positive class, and OP_NCLASS for a negative one. In either case, the opcode is followed by a 32-byte (16-short, 8-word) bit map containing a 1 bit for every character that is acceptable. The bits are counted from the least significant end of each unit. In caseless mode, bits for both cases are set. The reason for having both OP_CLASS and OP_NCLASS is so that, in UTF-8 and 16-bit and 32-bit modes, subject characters with values greater than 255 can be handled correctly. For OP_CLASS they do not match, whereas for OP_NCLASS they do. For classes containing characters with values greater than 255 or that contain \p or \P, OP_XCLASS is used. It optionally uses a bit map if any acceptable code points are less than 256, followed by a list of pairs (for a range) and/or single characters and/or properties. In caseless mode, all equivalent characters are explicitly listed. OP_XCLASS is followed by a LINK_SIZE value containing the total length of the opcode and its data. This is followed by a code unit containing flag bits: XCL_NOT indicates that this is a negative class, and XCL_MAP indicates that a bit map is present. There follows the bit map, if XCL_MAP is set, and then a sequence of items coded as follows: XCL_END marks the end of the list XCL_SINGLE one character follows XCL_RANGE two characters follow XCL_PROP a Unicode property (type, value) follows XCL_NOTPROP a Unicode property (type, value) follows If a range starts with a code point less than 256 and ends with one greater than 255, it is split into two ranges, with characters less than 256 being indicated in the bit map, and the rest with XCL_RANGE. When XCL_NOT is set, the bit map, if present, contains bits for characters that are allowed (exactly as for OP_NCLASS), but the list of items that follow it specifies characters and properties that are not allowed. Back references --------------- OP_REF (caseful) or OP_REFI (caseless) is followed by a count containing the reference number when the reference is to a unique capturing group (either by number or by name). When named groups are used, there may be more than one group with the same name. In this case, a reference to such a group by name generates OP_DNREF or OP_DNREFI. These are followed by two counts: the index (not the byte offset) in the group name table of the first entry for the required name, followed by the number of groups with the same name. The matching code can then search for the first one that is set. Repeating character classes and back references ----------------------------------------------- Single-character classes are handled specially (see above). This section applies to other classes and also to back references. In both cases, the repeat information follows the base item. The matching code looks at the following opcode to see if it is one of these: OP_CRSTAR OP_CRMINSTAR OP_CRPOSSTAR OP_CRPLUS OP_CRMINPLUS OP_CRPOSPLUS OP_CRQUERY OP_CRMINQUERY OP_CRPOSQUERY OP_CRRANGE OP_CRMINRANGE OP_CRPOSRANGE All but the last three are single-code-unit items, with no data. The range opcodes are followed by the minimum and maximum repeat counts. Brackets and alternation ------------------------ A pair of non-capturing round brackets is wrapped round each expression at compile time, so alternation always happens in the context of brackets. [Note for North Americans: "bracket" to some English speakers, including myself, can be round, square, curly, or pointy. Hence this usage rather than "parentheses".] Non-capturing brackets use the opcode OP_BRA, capturing brackets use OP_CBRA. A bracket opcode is followed by a LINK_SIZE value which gives the offset to the next alternative OP_ALT or, if there aren't any branches, to the terminating opcode. Each OP_ALT is followed by a LINK_SIZE value giving the offset to the next one, or to the final opcode. For capturing brackets, the bracket number is a count that immediately follows the offset. There are several opcodes that mark the end of a subpattern group. OP_KET is used for subpatterns that do not repeat indefinitely, OP_KETRMIN and OP_KETRMAX are used for indefinite repetitions, minimally or maximally respectively, and OP_KETRPOS for possessive repetitions (see below for more details). All four are followed by a LINK_SIZE value giving (as a positive number) the offset back to the matching bracket opcode. If a subpattern is quantified such that it is permitted to match zero times, it is preceded by one of OP_BRAZERO, OP_BRAMINZERO, or OP_SKIPZERO. These are single-unit opcodes that tell the matcher that skipping the following subpattern entirely is a valid match. In the case of the first two, not skipping the pattern is also valid (greedy and non-greedy). The third is used when a pattern has the quantifier {0,0}. It cannot be entirely discarded, because it may be called as a subroutine from elsewhere in the pattern. A subpattern with an indefinite maximum repetition is replicated in the compiled data its minimum number of times (or once with OP_BRAZERO if the minimum is zero), with the final copy terminating with OP_KETRMIN or OP_KETRMAX as appropriate. A subpattern with a bounded maximum repetition is replicated in a nested fashion up to the maximum number of times, with OP_BRAZERO or OP_BRAMINZERO before each replication after the minimum, so that, for example, (abc){2,5} is compiled as (abc)(abc)((abc)((abc)(abc)?)?)?, except that each bracketed group has the same number. When a repeated subpattern has an unbounded upper limit, it is checked to see whether it could match an empty string. If this is the case, the opcode in the final replication is changed to OP_SBRA or OP_SCBRA. This tells the matcher that it needs to check for matching an empty string when it hits OP_KETRMIN or OP_KETRMAX, and if so, to break the loop. Possessive brackets ------------------- When a repeated group (capturing or non-capturing) is marked as possessive by the "+" notation, e.g. (abc)++, different opcodes are used. Their names all have POS on the end, e.g. OP_BRAPOS instead of OP_BRA and OP_SCBRAPOS instead of OP_SCBRA. The end of such a group is marked by OP_KETRPOS. If the minimum repetition is zero, the group is preceded by OP_BRAPOSZERO. Once-only (atomic) groups ------------------------- These are just like other subpatterns, but they start with the opcode OP_ONCE. The check for matching an empty string in an unbounded repeat is handled entirely at runtime, so there is just this one opcode for atomic groups. Assertions ---------- Forward assertions are also just like other subpatterns, but starting with one of the opcodes OP_ASSERT, OP_ASSERT_NA (non-atomic assertion), or OP_ASSERT_NOT. Backward assertions use the opcodes OP_ASSERTBACK, OP_ASSERTBACK_NA, and OP_ASSERTBACK_NOT, and the first opcode inside the assertion is OP_REVERSE, followed by a count of the number of characters to move back the pointer in the subject string. In ASCII or UTF-32 mode, the count is also the number of code units, but in UTF-8/16 mode each character may occupy more than one code unit. A separate count is present in each alternative of a lookbehind assertion, allowing each branch to have a different (but fixed) length. Conditional subpatterns ----------------------- These are like other subpatterns, but they start with the opcode OP_COND, or OP_SCOND for one that might match an empty string in an unbounded repeat. If the condition is a back reference, this is stored at the start of the subpattern using the opcode OP_CREF followed by a count containing the reference number, provided that the reference is to a unique capturing group. If the reference was by name and there is more than one group with that name, OP_DNCREF is used instead. It is followed by two counts: the index in the group names table, and the number of groups with the same name. The allows the matcher to check if any group with the given name is set. If the condition is "in recursion" (coded as "(?(R)"), or "in recursion of group x" (coded as "(?(Rx)"), the group number is stored at the start of the subpattern using the opcode OP_RREF (with a value of RREF_ANY (0xffff) for "the whole pattern") or OP_DNRREF (with data as for OP_DNCREF). For a DEFINE condition, OP_FALSE is used (with no associated data). During compilation, however, a DEFINE condition is coded as OP_DEFINE so that, when the conditional group is complete, there can be a check to ensure that it contains only one top-level branch. Once this has happened, the opcode is changed to OP_FALSE, so the matcher never sees OP_DEFINE. There is a special PCRE2-specific condition of the form (VERSION[>]=x.y), which tests the PCRE2 version number. This compiles into one of the opcodes OP_TRUE or OP_FALSE. If a condition is not a back reference, recursion test, DEFINE, or VERSION, it must start with a parenthesized atomic assertion, whose opcode normally immediately follows OP_COND or OP_SCOND. However, if automatic callouts are enabled, a callout is inserted immediately before the assertion. It is also possible to insert a manual callout at this point. Only assertion conditions may have callouts preceding the condition. A condition that is the negative assertion (?!) is optimized to OP_FAIL in all parts of the pattern, so this is another opcode that may appear as a condition. It is treated the same as OP_FALSE. Recursion --------- Recursion either matches the current pattern, or some subexpression. The opcode OP_RECURSE is followed by a LINK_SIZE value that is the offset to the starting bracket from the start of the whole pattern. OP_RECURSE is also used for "subroutine" calls, even though they are not strictly a recursion. Up till release 10.30 recursions were treated as atomic groups, making them incompatible with Perl (but PCRE had them well before Perl did). From 10.30, backtracking into recursions is supported. Repeated recursions used to be wrapped inside OP_ONCE brackets, which not only forced no backtracking, but also allowed repetition to be handled as for other bracketed groups. From 10.30 onwards, repeated recursions are duplicated for their minimum repetitions, and then wrapped in non-capturing brackets for the remainder. For example, (?1){3} is treated as (?1)(?1)(?1), and (?1){2,4} is treated as (?1)(?1)(?:(?1)){0,2}. Callouts -------- A callout may have either a numerical argument or a string argument. These use OP_CALLOUT or OP_CALLOUT_STR, respectively. In each case these are followed by two LINK_SIZE values giving the offset in the pattern string to the start of the following item, and another count giving the length of this item. These values make it possible for pcre2test to output useful tracing information using callouts. In the case of a numeric callout, after these two values there is a single code unit containing the callout number, in the range 0-255, with 255 being used for callouts that are automatically inserted as a result of the PCRE2_AUTO_CALLOUT option. Thus, this opcode item is of fixed length: [OP_CALLOUT] [PATTERN_OFFSET] [PATTERN_LENGTH] [NUMBER] For callouts with string arguments, OP_CALLOUT_STR has three more data items: a LINK_SIZE value giving the complete length of the entire opcode item, a LINK_SIZE item containing the offset within the pattern string to the start of the string argument, and the string itself, preceded by its starting delimiter and followed by a binary zero. When a callout function is called, a pointer to the actual string is passed, but the delimiter can be accessed as string[-1] if the application needs it. In the 8-bit library, the callout in /X(?C'abc')Y/ is compiled as the following bytes (decimal numbers represent binary values): [OP_CALLOUT_STR] [0] [10] [0] [1] [0] [14] [0] [5] ['] [a] [b] [c] [0] -------- ------- -------- ------- | | | | ------- LINK_SIZE items ------ Opcode table checking --------------------- The last opcode that is defined in pcre2_internal.h is OP_TABLE_LENGTH. This is not a real opcode, but is used to check at compile time that tables indexed by opcode are the correct length, in order to catch updating errors. Philip Hazel December 2021